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The endothelial cells are tightly connected by intracellular junctions that play a crucial role in maintaining the highly selective permeability of the BBB, allowing it to regulate the movement of ions, molecules, and cells between the blood and the neural tissue (84, 85)

Scher, H

Free energy perturbations (FEPs)-based approaches such as virtual alanine scans have been successfully adapted to the design of stapled peptides [80], similar to their application in the development of small molecule binders and predicting binding pockets [75]

Notably, astrocytes also contribute by amplifying inflammatory signaling under pathological conditions

Rather than acting through isolated pathways, IGF ligands and binding proteins orchestrate upstream and downstream signals that regulate cellular proliferation, apoptosis resistance, ECM turnover, and immune responses within the pulmonary vasculature